With thousands of children trapped in conditions of modern slavery across the UK – from county lines to cannabis farms – how well is the legislation working to support victims a decade on? Journalist Vivienne Russell reports.
The word slavery conjures up images of inhumane practices we think of as long being consigned to history – even though they should never have happened in any age. Enslaved people, for example, laboured in the plantations of the Caribbean and southern states of the USA in the 18th and 19th centuries. Further back, enslaved people built the temples and pyramids of the ancient world.
Yet sadly, slavery is still around us, taking on many forms and guises, often hidden and poorly understood. Coerced labour, human trafficking, sexual exploitation and forced marriage are forms of modern slavery in which people are exploited, abused and trapped. Children and young people, lacking life experience and maturity, can be particularly vulnerable to exploitation.
According to human rights organisation Walk Free (2023), some 12 million children globally experience modern forms of slavery. And those who are caught up in the practice can face a lifetime of trauma and difficulties.
A decade ago, landmark legislation was enacted to address modern slavery in all its forms in the UK. The aim was to root out exploitative practices affecting vulnerable adults and children. Back in 2015, the Modern Slavery Act was hailed as world-leading, groundbreaking legislation (The National Archives, 2015a). But 10 years on, how has the legislation held up? Is it fit for purpose and protecting people properly? Are changes needed? Crucially, how can community practitioners (CPs), play their part in helping to safeguard children from modern slavery?
WHO’S AFFECTED?
First, we need to look at who is currently suffering in the UK. ‘The standard case of modern slavery among children that we come across will involve a child who has a range of vulnerabilities’, says Dr Grace Robinson, director of Black Box, a research and consultancy company focusing on modern slavery. ‘Because at the heart of modern slavery is vulnerability,’ she highlights. ‘These vulnerabilities might include abuse within the home, substance misuse, parents in prison or parental bereavement.’
A common form of exploitation of children who are UK nationals is county lines drug trafficking. For Grace, a typical case involves a child who starts smoking cannabis and builds up a debt to the drug dealer. This is then inflated with the child being forced to work to pay it off – a state known as debt bondage. ‘Once these children and young people are in debt bondage they’re very easily controlled through violence and coercion,’ Grace explains.
For migrant children, modern slavery practices can be more hidden and difficult to prove, Grace says. Many will have arrived in the UK on the promise of a better life only to end up working in a cannabis farm, for example. ‘They are not known to wider public sector authorities, so it is harder to build up evidence of abuse,’ Grace explains.
CURRENT PROCESS
In terms of how authorities are protecting people, those suspected of being victims of modern slavery are referred by a first responder into a UK-wide process run by the Home Office, known as the national referral mechanism (NRM) (Home Office, 2024a), with some differences in guidance for Scotland and Northern Ireland.
First responders are organisations that make referrals after conducting initial investigations. They include NHS bodies, local authorities, police forces, the Border Force and designated charities, such as the Salvation Army, Barnardo’s and the NSPCC (Home Office, 2024b).
‘THE STANDARD CASE OF
MODERN SLAVERY AMONG
CHILDREN…WILL INVOLVE A
CHILD WHO HAS A RANGE OF
VULNERABILITIES, BECAUSE
AT THE HEART OF MODERN
SLAVERY IS VULNERABILITY’
While adults must consent to be referred, this is not the case for suspected child victims. The NRM team then decides whether the person is a victim. Under the framework, decisions are made by the Single Competent Authority at the Home Office. However, the NRM process has been plagued by significant delays and backlogs. There are concerns among charities about a disconnect between NRM decision-making and local support for children. As a result of these shortcomings, a new approach is currently being piloted (see Going local, at feature end).
While most provisions of the Modern Slavery Act 2015 only cover England and Wales, some aspects apply UK-wide (The National Archives, 2015a). Scotland and Northern Ireland brought in parallel legislation (tailored to their justice systems), such as Scotland’s Human Trafficking and Exploitation Act (The National Archives, 2015b).
ON THE RISE?
The Home Office publishes regular updates on the number and characteristics of people being referred to the NRM (Home Office, 2025a). Its analysis of NRM data for 2024 was published this March, showing that:
19,125 the total number of referrals
A 13% increase on the previous year and the highest since the NRM was established
Among referrals, an alarming 5999 (31%) were children
UK nationals comprised the largest group of referrals at 23% followed by those from Albania at 13% and Vietnam at 11%
Home Office figures reveal a steady rise in referrals since 2014.
But specialist human trafficking and modern slavery lawyer Philippa Southwell states: ‘I do not think modern slavery is [necessarily] increasing. I just think [through the NRM] we’re better at recording it and identifying it.’
That said, Eleonora Fais, anti-trafficking monitoring group coordinator at Anti-Slavery International, says NRM statistics only provide a partial picture. ‘According to the global estimates … 122,000 people are estimated to be trapped in modern slavery in the UK. This suggests that NRM statistics are just the tip of the iceberg,’ she says.
‘The demographics and experiences of people referred to the NRM may not necessarily represent the total population of those affected by modern slavery,’ says Eleonora. ‘And we often see discrepancies between data published by the Home Office and the Department for Education which suggests that the number of children affected by modern slavery may be higher than the reported figures.’
The key point is it’s a hidden, hard-to-identify problem.
OUTDATED ACT
Last October a cross-party House of Lords committee published its review of the Modern Slavery Act 2015 (House of Lords, 2024). It concluded that while the legislation was groundbreaking at the time, the UK now whole lagged behind other countries. The committee made a series of recommendations aimed at strengthening the current legislation and challenged the government to make the UK ‘a world leader in the battle against modern slavery once again’ (House of Lords, 2024).
Other experts agree that the legislation could be strengthened. ‘[The Modern Slavery Act] has brought a lot more awareness to practitioners and also to the general public in terms of what contemporary slavery looks like,’ says lawyer Philippa. ‘But there are still big gaps in our system, with funding, with safeguarding and with sharing of information between bodies.’
Anti-Slavery International (ASI) has long been critical of the act’s effectiveness in eradicating modern slavery and supporting the people impacted. ‘For example, the act prioritises criminal justice rather than safeguarding, protection and prevention,’ says Eleonora Fais from ASI. Tough immigration and border security policies have exacerbated the problem, she adds. ‘These policies have impacted people’s understanding of modern slavery and made it harder to identify and support survivors of modern slavery, including children.’
CLEANING UP THE ACT?
The Labour government has promised to ramp up action on modern slavery. In a response to the House of Lords report, published in December last year, ministers agreed that the UK ‘should be at the forefront driving for change and leading by example’ (Home Office, 2024c). They have promised a renewed focus on modern slavery which in the long term secures more prosecutions and convictions, with a ‘holistic, victim centred approach’ that provides them with support to help them rebuild their lives. The response also stated that the ‘government has considered all of the committee’s recommendations’, of which many ‘have been accepted and many will be fully considered as the government develops its policies’.
An Action plan on modern slavery, published by safeguarding minister Jess Phillips in March (shared for this article), sets out 15 actions to tackle modern slavery to be implemented over the current financial year. These include recruiting an additional 200 case workers to reduce the NRM backlogs and launching a tender for an Independent Child Trafficking Guardians service for all of England and Wales. Guardians advocate on behalf of trafficked children and ensure their best interests are heard.
For child victims, and in accordance with a Labour Party manifesto pledge, the government is also introducing a standalone offence of child exploitation in the Crime and Policing Bill. This makes it an offence for an adult to use a child to commit any criminal activity and outlaws ‘cuckooing’ (Home Office 2025b). This term is used when a person takes over someone else’s home
for the purpose of carrying out criminal activities, such as dealing in drugs or committing sexual offences. At the time of writing, the bill was in committee stage in the House of Commons (UK Parliament, 2025)
STAYING AWARE
According to CPHVA Executive chair Janet Taylor, health visitors and other CPs are ‘certainly aware’ of modern slavery and it’s a topic that is often discussed. ‘But there’s always room for improvement when it comes to awareness,’ she says. ‘Modern slavery practices are still happening and HVs need to look out for the telltale signs. It’s an issue that needs to stay on the agenda at our professional meetings and forums.’
Training and awareness are issues demanding attention, and Philippa says that training programmes for a range of professions should be developed. ASI’s Eleonora agrees, explaining that training is under-resourced, while there is no national framework or training programme. Even first responders who are charged with spotting victims and making referrals are often required to develop their own training opportunities, which can create gaps and inconsistencies in knowledge.
‘The government should allocate resources to improving training for statutory first responders, create modern slavery leads in each local authority, and support recruitment and resources for non-statutory first responders,’ says Eleonora. It’s important to note that you do not have to be a first responder to report modern slavery (see Resources at feature end), although it is only first responder organisations that can refer into the NRM.
SPOTTING THE SIGNS
Philippa, who works with child victims of modern slavery, offers some practical insights into how they might present to a health professional. Malnourishment and poor hygiene are possible common signs. Victims locked in cannabis properties are unlikely to have seen daylight for lengthy periods and may have neurological issues due to exposure to the drugs. Female victims may have lacked access to sanitary products. ‘We are also seeing dental issues and addiction problems,’ says Philippa.
‘What we are seeing, particularly for forced labour exploitation … are that traffickers will give [victims] either alcohol or drugs in payment for work. They will also give them very highly caffeinated and sugary drinks [which can cause dental issues].’ Stabbings and knife crime affect those caught up in drug offences through their involvement in county lines, for example. ‘I’ve had clients who have sustained very significant, life-threatening injuries,’ says Philippa. ‘They do not want to speak to the police or make disclosures to medical practitioners, or they are giving them a completely different account of how they sustained that injury.’
Philippa warns practitioners ‘to be mindful of individuals giving either false names or false dates of birth’ – something that is ‘very common’. If a child is accompanied, CPs need to understand who is with them, as it may be the person exploiting them.
Public sector professionals working together across service boundaries is key to effective intervention on modern slavery, says Janet. ‘Everybody who works in the public sector – the police, public health nurses, hospitals, GPs, social services – needs to take responsibility and ownership of tackling this issue and raising the problem,’ she says. ‘It’s constant vigilance and then action.’
Going local: a new approach to support for child victims
Since 2021, the UK government has been piloting a more local and multi-agency approach to decision-making for children suspected of being victims of modern slavery. It has been testing whether devolving decisions about child victims to local safeguarding authorities could provide a more sustainable structure, with decisions being based on a more holistic view of a child’s circumstances and made more quickly. The approach is being tested at 20 sites covering 30 local authorities in England, Wales and Scotland, as detailed in the Action plan on modern slavery.
The action plan, published by safeguarding minister Jess Phillips in March, also confirmed that the pilots would be rolled out further this year with new pilot sites shifting to the devolved model by late summer. Any national roll out would not begin before 2027.
RESOURCES
Reporting modern slavery
- Government guidance for first responders
- Government guidance if you’re not a first responder: call
- the modern slavery helpline 0800 0121 700 or report online. (If you are unsure, check your organisation’s
- referral pathway).
- Barnardo’s more detailed guidance on the process including if a child is in immediate danger, plus advice
- Home Office training
SHARE KNOWLEDGE
Do you have any insight you can share on modern slavery among children and young people? Get in touch with editor Aviva Attias aviva@communitypractitioner.co.uk
REFERENCES
Home Office. (2025a) Modern slavery: National Referral Mechanism and Duty to Notify statistics UK, end of year summary 2024. See: gov.uk/government/statistics/modern-slavery-nrm-and-dtn-statistics-end-of-year-summary-2024 (accessed 23 April 2025).
Home Office. (2025b) Crime and Policing Bill: Child criminal exploitation and ‘cuckooing’ factsheet. See: gov.uk/government/publications/crime-and-policing-bill-2025-factsheets/crime-and-policing-bill-child-criminal-exploitation-and-cuckooing-factsheet#how-are-we-going-to-do-it (accessed 23 April 2025).
Home Office. (2024a) National referral mechanism guidance: adult (England and Wales). See: gov.uk/government/publications/human-trafficking-victims-referral-and-assessment-forms/guidance-on-the-national-referral-mechanism-for-potential-adult-victims-of-modern-slavery-england-and-wales (accessed 23 April 2025).
Home Office. (2024b) Report modern slavery as a first responder. See: gov.uk/guidance/report-modern-slavery-as-a-first-responder (accessed 23 April 2025).
Home Office. (2024c) Government response to House of Lords Modern Slavery Act 2015 Committee report, ‘The Modern Slavery Act 2015: becoming world-leading again’ (accessible). See: gov.uk/government/publications/modern-slavery-government-response-to-house-of-lords-committee-report/government-response-to-house-of-lords-modern-slavery-act-2015-committee-report-the-modern-slavery-act-2015-becoming-world-leading-again#introduction (accessed 23 April 2025).
House of Lords. (2024) The Modern Slavery Act 2015: becoming world-leading again. See: publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld5901/ldselect/ldmodslav/8/8.pdf (accessed 23 April 2025).
The National Archives. (2015a) Modern Slavery Act 2015. See: legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/30/contents (accessed 23 April 2025).
The National Archives. (2015b) Human Trafficking and Exploitation (Scotland) Act 2015. See: legislation.gov.uk/asp/2015/12/contents (accessed 23 April 2025).
UK Parliament. (2025) Crime and Policing Bill. See: bills.parliament.uk/bills/3938 (accessed 23 April 2025).
Walk Free. (2023) The Global Slavery Index 2023. See: cdn.walkfree.org/content/uploads/2023/05/17114737/Global-Slavery-Index-2023.pdf (accessed 23 April 2025).
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